ISO 14001, Environmental Management Systems - Specification with Guidance for Use, is an international standard. It specifies the requirements for an EMS to be certified by an accredited, independent third party which assesses whether a company meets the requirements to be awarded SO 14001 certificate. ISO 14001 contains five main principles:

·        Establishing a company environmental policy;

·        Planning by setting objectives and targets to address company environmental impacts;

·        Implementing and operating the environmental management system;

·        Monitoring the system and taking corrective action, as appropriate;

·        Undertaking a management review to assess the effectiveness of the system;

To attain ISO 14001 certification or EMAS registration, a company needs to be informed about the environmental effects of its operations and requires a mechanism for identifying how improvements can be made - a role suited to LCA. For example, LCA can help managers to identify improvements in a production or waste management process. It is worth noting that, as a result of improving their environmental performance, many companies are able to achieve manufacturing cost savings which offset the costs associated with attaining ISO 14001 or EMAS:

·        At one of its sites, National Power turned a £200 000 annual cost into a £20 000 annual profit by adopting a number of measures including sending more wastes for re-use and recycling1;

·        After achieving EMAS registration, Woodcote Industries reported savings of £320 000 due to energy and waste reduction1;

The word development in this definition implicates two important aspects of the concept. Firstly it is omni-disciplinary, i.e. it cannot be limited to a number of disciplines or areas, but it is applicable to the whole world and everyone and everything on it, now and in the future. Secondly, there is no set aim, but the continuation of development is the aim of the development. The definition itself is also based on two concepts:

·        The concept of needs, comprising of the conditions for maintaining an acceptable life standard for all people, and

·         The concept of limits of the capacity of the environment to fulfil the needs of the present and the future, as determined by the state of technology and social organisation.

What the group realised after an extended literature review is that sustainable development is not merely about a series of technical fixes. To us it is not about re-designing humanity or re-engineering nature in our continuing desire for globalised industrialisation. Instead, we feel that sustainable development is about re-connection with nature, copying what nature does, and developing a profound understanding for the concepts of care that underpin long-term ecological, economic, and social stewardship of the places we call home.

Likewise, sustainable development is not strictly a problem of science or engineering or economics or proper management. It is all of these, and also includes the passion found in the values, ethics, and cultural heritage of people. Scientific data, laws, and economic incentives are not enough. Protecting the environment is inescapably a moral issue as well. Therefore, the process of sustainable development must remain flexible, because what works in one community may not work in another or may work for different reasons. For decisions and actions to be sustainable, they must be ever flexible, adaptable, and creative. You can plan and plan, but then also leave yourself open to discovery! Thus, the major cornerstones forming the foundation of sustainable development include:

·       Flexibility;

·       Diversity and stability (ecological, economic, socio-cultural);

·       Consideration of unintended consequences (change is the norm, not the exception);

·       Notions of enoughness and reversibility.

From our study we also found that sustainability is strongly based upon economics. As machines were the catalysts for the industrial revolution likewise money are the strongest intensive for a sustainable future. Most regions requiring an improved quality of life are economically driven. Economics therefore become the necessary vehicle for change and the roadway upon which we are driving is our economy's ecological base of nature and its resources. Society is the driver. This is most easily envisioned by examining our guiding principles shown in the sustainability model (Figure 1). This diagram of overlapping circles illustrates the interconnectedness of modern society's economics within the dictates of its ecological and societal (human) bases of support. By this model we are guided to operate under the rubric of sustainable action in which any project that focuses its efforts in a sustainable context, means it strives to link economic, social, and environmental parts of the community to strengthen its overall fabric. If any action simultaneously address issues of ecological integrity, economic viability, and social equity, then that will eventually be equal to a well being for all the living creatures of the planet now and in future years (darkened intersection of three circles in the Figure 1). Projects that work in only one of these parts of a community are not good examples of efforts to achieve sustainability. All resources - human, natural, and economic - are interrelated, and therefore must be addressed in concert with one another.

Each element of the overlapping circles diagram is interconnected to demonstrate the interaction between all parts of life and illustrate the need for their equal consideration. To isolate one from the others is not an accurate depiction of the process of sustainable development and the values used to implement it. Members of a sustainable community realize that long term economic security depends upon having a sound, functioning ecosystem, a healthy social environment, and full public involvement (suggested by the ring of people around the three circles).

Figure 1

The primary step, for the scientific society, to achieve sustainability is to emulate nature in design. The source of commonalities begins with understanding and abiding by the inherent laws of nature. This is the most basic principle of sustainable design and is reflected in all the following common principles. Landform engineering, passive heating and cooling in architecture, wind and solar power, and biological waste treatment are some literal examples of the various different applications of this idea.

After emulation is accommodated the notion of reusing reducing and recycling must arise as an indication of preservation of goods and recourses.
This statement goes far beyond simple domestic waste issues. The principle of reusing, reducing, and recycling, derives from nature, in which there is no waste. Reducing the scale of development to prevent sprawl in site planning, adaptive reuse of buildings in architecture, recycling tires and glass for street paving in transportation, these are just some of the universal applications of this important principle.

Further on, the promotion of diversity must apply in every action of design.
As in nature where the most diverse ecological systems are the most stable, incorporating diversity in design leads to sustainability. Diversity in architecture, land-use planning and utility systems, to name a few, leads to cultural, economic, and environmental sustainability.

To bid the sanctity of sustainable development into building development the construction and supply plans must be locally orientated. In his book, “Small is Beautiful”, E.F. Schumacher proposed small-scale economic systems based on regionalization. Although his sustainability theories were intended for the economic field, the essence of this idea is applicable to all areas of sustainable design. Designing for the local environment and culture, and using local materials and labour is a primary tenet of sustainability. This provides environmental and regional economic benefits. It is also a far more human element to design, preserving local culture, tradition, and knowledge. Darwinism states that in nature, each species has survived because they have been able to find an ecological niche in the local region. These species are living textbooks, which hold lessons on how to survive within the local environment. Similarly, pre-modern design strategies survived because they were well suited to local environments and regions. The connection of the built environment to the local region is the common rule, which runs throughout all cultures at all times until the 20th century. This knowledge encoded in historic design strategies must not be forgotten.

William McDonough as an architect defined sustainable development using a set of architectural design principles, which he defined to the best of the society, economy and environment. The Hannover Principles should be seen as a living document committed to the transformation and growth of our society and in the understanding of our dependence upon nature, so that they may be adapted as our knowledge in the evolving of our world.

1.      Insist on rights of humanity and nature to co-exist in a healthy, supportive, diverse and sustainable condition.

2.      Recognize interdependence. The elements of human design interact with and depend upon the natural world, with broad and diverse implications at every scale. Expand design considerations to recognizing even distant effects.

3.      Respect relationships between spirit and matter. Consider all aspects of human settlement including community, dwelling, industry and trade in terms of existing and evolving connections between spiritual and material consciousness.

4.      Accept responsibility for the consequences of design decisions upon human well being, the viability of natural systems, and their right to co-exist.

5.      Create safe objects of long-term value. Do not burden future generations with requirements for maintenance of vigilant administration of potential danger due to the careless creation of products, processes or standards.

6.      Eliminate the concept of waste. Evaluate and optimise the full life cycle of products and processes, to approach the state of natural systems, in which there is no waste.

7.      Rely on natural energy flows. Human designs should, like the living world, derive their creative forces from perpetual solar income. Incorporate the energy efficiently and safely for responsible use.

8.      Understand the limitations of design. No human creation lasts forever and design does not solve all problems. Those who create and plan should practice humility in the face of nature. Treat nature as a model and mentor, not and inconvenience to be evaded or controlled.

In the general context of sustainable development the basic ideas have been identified. Sustainable design is a step forward since it rationalises these general ideas into more specific elements of building practice. Thus a summation of guidelines can be used to ease the burden of manipulating the general notions of sustainability into simple instructions for applicable engineering works. Sustainable building design involves three primary elements. These are:

·        Energy-efficient design;

·        Preservation of cultural and regional identity;

·        Environmentally friendly building materials.

The relevant, to the design, bodies (construction companies, local authorities, governments…) must take all these elements into account at one level, as well as the overall context at another level. In more detail the Principles of Sustainable Design can be seen below as an indication of the most representative examples of this practice.

1.      Understanding of Place - Sustainable design begins with an intimate understanding of place. If we are sensitive to the nuances of place, we can inhabit without destroying it. Understanding place helps determine design practices such as solar orientation of a building on the site, preservation of the natural environment, and access to public transportation.

2.      Connecting with Nature - Whether the design site is a building in the inner city or in a more natural setting, connecting with nature brings the designed environment back to life. Effective design helps and informs us of our place within nature.

3.      Understanding Natural Processes - In nature there is not waste. The by-product of one organism becomes the food for another. In other words, natural systems are made of closed loops. By working with living processes, we respect the needs of all species. Engaging processes that regenerate rather than deplete, we become more alive. Making natural cycles and processes visible brings the designed environment back to life.

4.      Understanding Environmental Impact - Sustainable design attempts to have an understanding of the environmental impact of the design by evaluating the site, the embodied energy and toxicity of the materials, and the energy efficiency of design, materials and construction techniques. Negative environmental impact can be mitigated through use of sustainably harvested building materials and finishes, materials with low toxicity in manufacturing and installation, and recycling building materials while on the job site.

5.      Embracing Co-creative Design Processes - Sustainable designers are finding it is important to listen to every voice. Collaboration with systems consultants, engineers and other experts happens early in the design process, instead of an afterthought. Designers are also listening to the voices of local communities. Design charettes for the end user (neighbourhood residents or office employers) are becoming a standard practice.

6.      Understanding People - Sustainable design must take into consideration the wide range of cultures, races, religions and habits of the people who are going to be using and inhabiting the built environment. This requires sensitivity and empathy on the needs of the people and the community.

These are the major sections that sustainable building design contains. For the interested reader a more technical section is allocated as a reference to analytical guidelines as used by many design companies today.

Design space-efficient buildings

·        Reduce the size and complexity of buildings whenever possible.

·        Avoid odd, irregular shapes that are difficult to construct, finish, and furnish.

·        Optimise interior spaces for size and efficiency. Minimize space required for circulation.

·        Design Spaces that are flexible and suitable for multiple uses.

·        Use residual spaces for storage. Maximize all surfaces for shelving, built-ins, closets, etc.

·        Eliminate superfluous spaces. Favour well-designed entrances that are properly scaled and include airlocks or windbreaks.

 Design energy-efficient buildings that use renewable energy sources

·        Optimise building surface to volume ratio.

·        Efficient design dictates that the least possible amount of materials is used to enclose the space.

·        Orient buildings to the sun. Elongate the east-west axis or dimension to present as much of the building as possible to the south.

·        Consider earth berming, wind breaks and landscape planning for energy conservation.

·        Use high levels of insulation, super windows and tight construction. Use fan doors or other diagnostic equipment to verify the airtight quality of construction.

·        Integrate primary renewable energy systems. Solar energy can provide a significant amount of natural light, passive solar heat gain and natural ventilation. Photovoltaic, wind and hydroelectric sources are also renewable. Small-scale systems are now available.

·        When appropriate, use masonry stoves or sinserts that can heat adequately with wood scraps.

·        Use high efficiency mechanical and electrical systems. Make sure all dwelling units have adequate, natural or mechanical ventilation.

Follow the principles of reduce, reuse and recycle

·        Reuse existing buildings, materials, and infrastructure to reduce the amount of new materials and resources required.

·        Use salvage building materials as much as possible. Be sure they have adequate quality to perform their role and do not represent health hazards.

·        Recycle construction waste at the job site. Many items can be recycled already and new markets are currently being developed.

·        Minimize waste by designing for standard sizes. Avoid over design of building systems.

·        Design areas for storing and processing recyclables within the building. Provide space for aluminium, glass, plastic, newspaper and compo stables.

Optimise material use

·        Design for standard sizes to minimize waste.

·        Use value-engineered products such as advanced framing and composite truss joists for more efficient structures.

·        Select durable materials that can provide thermal mass in buildings.

·        Detail all construction to avoid standing water, weather intrusion, and unwanted infiltration.

·        Place most of the windows, with proper shading, facing south. Place monolithic surfaces with minimum building penetrations facing winter winds.

Make it easy for occupants to recycle waste

·        Include convenient recycling stations in kitchens and other areas where waste is created.

·        Provide composting facilities in the house or on the property, which are functional, easy to use and vermin-proof.

·        Consider bulk recycling collection points within communities to simplify collection.

Include grey water and rooftop water catchments systems

·        Configure roof sheds to gather water at strategic locations.

·        Use gravity flow to distribute water for irrigation, flow forms and garden pools. Plumb dwellings to separate grey water from sewage or black water.

·        Consider on-site use of grey water for irrigation, flushing toilets or other uses approved by code officials

Use water-efficient, low maintenance landscaping

·        Replace large lawn areas with edible landscaping.

·        Use drought resistant plants to reduce irrigation

·        Implement metro gardening in community spaces. Try containerised gardening where open space is limited.

Avoid potential health hazards

·        Include radon abatement features or provisions for adding them if radon is detected.

·        Avoid electromagnetic fields (EMF) by not building close to power lines, microwave towers or other concentrated sources of electrical energy.

·        Do not use toxic materials that off gas or cause interior air pollution.

·        Design ductwork, heating and cooling coils and filters to be easily accessed and cleaned.

Design for future reuse

·        Simplify structures in shape and proportion 50 spaces can be reconfigured.

·        Use simple structural systems, which minimize interior weight-bearing walls.

·        Provide connections to building systems, which anticipate expansion or remodelling.

·        Design basements with outside access and windows when possible to facilitate conversion to additional living space.

·        Configure attics and roof framing systems to allow for using these spaces.

·        Carefully consider the space between buildings to allow for additions or gardens.

Avoid materials that harm the environment

·        Minimize the use of old growth timber. Use local woods whenever possible.

·        Do not use ozone depleting chemicals or mechanical equipment that rely on them.

·        Carefully recycle chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) when disposing of mechanical equipment or foam insulation.

·        Minimize the use of pressure treated lumber.

·        Use recycled plastic lumber or other alternatives.

·        Avoid the use of pesticides or other harmful chemicals that may leach into groundwater.

·        Use durable products. Durable, long-lasting products require less maintenance and contribute less to landfills.

·        Concrete and masonry products used inside a building provide thermal mass and assist in passive solar performance.

·        Choose building materials with low-embodied energy. Lumber, brick, cement, and glass require relatively little energy to produce compared with plastic and aluminium.

·        Choose locally produced materials to reduce energy required for transportation and to support local economies.

·        Use building components made from recycled materials. Framing and finish lumber, carpet, floor tile, cabinet stock and paints are now manufactured with recycled materials.

·        Cellulose and plastic building insulation, which are recycled often, are less toxic and involve remanufacturing processes, which are earth friendly.

·        Build with salvaged materials whenever possible.

Renovating and using existing structures saves the Resources and energy inherent in them.

·        Older fixtures, mouldings, plumbing components, etc., are often of high quality and rare design imparting a unique aesthetic and design value.

·        Materials that are older usually do not off gas or contribute to interior air quality problems.

·        Avoid materials that off gas pollutants

·        Use allergy-free, non-toxic building materials. Consult material data safety sheets to confirm whether or not a material may be harmful.

·        Minimize products derived from petrochemicals. Choose water-based products if they are suitable for the application.

·        Provide adequate ventilation during construction and insure all workers are properly protected when materials are being applied.

Reduce packaging waste

·        Buy in bulk whenever possible.

·        Avoid shrink-wrapped or plastic-wrapped products unless the packaging is necessary to protect the product.

·        Goal Definition and Scope - Define and describe the product, process or activity. Establish the context in which the assessment is to be made and identify the boundaries and environmental effects to be reviewed for the assessment.

·        Inventory Analysis - Identify and quantify energy, water and materials usage and environmental releases (e.g., air emissions, solid waste disposal, wastewater discharge).

·        Impact Assessment - Assess the human and ecological effects of energy, water, and material usage and the environmental releases identified in the inventory analysis.

Life cycle models generally consider only costs and take into account mainly the maintenance costs of a product. In some cases disposal and recycling costs are considered. In the case of buildings with very long life times and very diversified impacts on the environment, the system limits have to be enlarged and fixed in a two-direction scheme:

1.      The time limits (phases) consider the upstream as well as the downstream process;

2.      The space limits (domains) consider not only the planning domain but also the whole ecosystem.

The idea of life cycle cost was developed up to a quarter of a century ago. The basic definition of life cycle costs is: "The sum of all costs incurred during the lifetime of an item, i.e. the total of procurement and ownership costs. " (Dhillon). The primary uses of life cycle costs are to compare competing projects, to account for long range planning and budgeting and to select among competing bidders. Furthermore it can be used to control an on going project, to compare logistic concepts, and to decide on the replacement of aging equipment. These objectives cannot be reached through common financial costs accounting when energy, resources and environmental impact issues become predominant. The different steps in establishing life cycle costs are given in the literature and the techniques can be considered as well known. There are several life cycle costs models available in published literature and Dhillon distinguishes between general, non-specific models and specific models developed for a particular application. For the most general model there are two basic components: recurring costs and non-recurring costs. The enlargement of the time system limits shows that the costs of the use and maintenance of a building over 80 years are approximately 5 times the investment costs (without taking into account interests and pay back).

[12a] Recurring costs are:

·        Costs associated with maintenance

·        Costs associated with manpower

·        Operating costs

·        Inventory costs

·        Support costs

[12b] Non-recurring costs are:

·        Cost of training

·        Cost of research and development

·        Procurement costs

·        Cost of improving reliability (quality costs)

·        Support cost

·        Qualification approval costs

·        Cost of installation

·        Transportation costs

·        Cost of test equipment

The methods of life cycle assessment cover a large field of intentions from purely financial to all embracing ecological considerations and from a simple feed back inside the design process to a "cradle to grave" dimension which, in the case of buildings, takes up to hundred years. All research results in the field of life cycle analysis rely very much on the chosen system limits. The possible system limits are represented as time and domain dependent limits. In the most general approach a building is represented during its lifetime as the superposition of different flows and activities:

·        Physical flows;

·        Material (building material, water);

·        Energy (embodied and operation energy);

·        Waste (building materials and waste from use);

·        Emission (waste released directly into the air or the water);

·        Information flows;

·        Financial flows.

Impact characterization uses science-based conversion factors, called characterization factors, to convert and combine the LCI (Life Cycle Inventory) results into representative indicators of impacts to human and ecological health. Characterization factors also are commonly referred to as equivalency factors. Characterization provides a way to directly compare the LCI results within each impact category. In other words, characterization factors translate different inventory inputs into directly comparable impact indicators. For example, characterization would provide an estimate of the relative terrestrial toxicity between lead, chromium, and zinc.

Impact indicators are typically characterized using the following equation:

Inventory Data × Characterization Factor = Impact Indicators

For example, all greenhouse gases can be expressed in terms of carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalents by multiplying the relevant LCI results by a CO2 characterization factor and then combining the resulting impact indicators to provide an overall indicator of global warming potential.

Characterization can put these different quantities of chemicals on an equal scale to determine the amount of impact each one has on global warming. The calculations show that 10 pounds of methane have a larger impact on global warming than 20 pounds of chloroform. The key to impact characterization is using the appropriate characterization factor. For some impact categories, such as global warming and ozone depletion, there is a consensus on acceptable characterization factors. For other impact categories, such as resource depletion, a consensus is still being developed. Exhibit [14] describes possible characterization factors for some of the commonly used life cycle impact categories.

What our own experience has shown, and these other projects confirm, is that the full-blooded, scientific LCA faces significant practical problems in use. As a recent review paper expresses it:

·      "Despite their conceptual utility, it has proven difficult in practice for corporations to carry-out detailed life-cycle inventories, more difficult to relate those inventories to a defendable impact analysis and still more difficult to translate the results of those LCA stages into appropriate actions." Graedel, T.E., Allenby, B.R. & Comrie, P. "Matrix Approaches to Abridged Life-cycle Assessment", Environmental Science and Technology, Vol 29, No 3 , 1995.

Among the likely trends identified by survey respondents, the following stood out:

·        Customer industries will increasingly demand at least some form of life-cycle information from key suppliers;

·        LCA will be seen as an integral part of the environmental management tool-kit, but will also find new applications in areas such as corporate strategy;

·        There will be more widely accepted standards and methodologies;

·        Market pressures will push greater benchmarking against industry averages;

·        We will see more LCIs integrated into new product development;

·        There will be more commonality and greater availability of data;

·        Expect more LCIs on computers - and, potentially, available via the Internet;

·        There will be a rapidly an evolving debate on - and better methods for - impact assessment;

·       And all respondents, whether or not they knew how to deal with these requirements, accepted that there would be a greater focus on peer review, verification and stakeholder dialogue to boost LCA credibility.

There have been a number of key shifts in the business and environment debate since The LCA Sourcebook was published. Some of these are specific to the LCA field, others related to much wider changes in the fields of environmental strategy, management and communication.

In order to explain some of the challenges that now face LCA practitioners - and users of LCA data - it is worth looking at some of the wider changes now impacting related areas of business- stakeholder relations.

Late in 1996, Sustainability completed a major survey of corporate environmental reporting, alongside the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and 16 international companies. The 2-volume report, Engaging Stakeholders, focuses both on the thinking of reporting companies and of the growing number of users of reported data and information. Ten transitions were identified for the reporting community (see the table below).

The focus on openness, credibility and dialogue can also be seen to apply directly to rising trends in LCA. Below we consider some of the implications for LCA, taking each of these transitions in turn.

Engaging Stakeholders: 10 Transitions